ABSTRACT
Although several investigators have discussed different herpetofaunal sampling methodologies and their effectiveness, few have quantitatively examined which methods are superior for inventorying
reptiles and amphibians in rain forest habitats. I examined two years of data from Tambopata, southeastern Peru, to compare and contrast visual encounter survey (VES) and quadrat methodologies and to determine which method yields the highest number of individuals and species per sampling effort. Four separate questions were posed concerning the number of captures for short-term surveys, long-term surveys, arboreal versus terrestrial amphibian surveys, and particular taxonomic group surveys. Over most of the analyses, more individuals and species of amphibians and reptiles were captured using VES than quadrats. In addition, more unique species were recorded with VES. However, particular microhabitats and taxonomic groups were better sampled with quadrats. In long-term surveys, the methods were equivalent with respect to number of individuals and species captured. This study provides quantitative data on the efficacy of the two methods and describes, for the first time, the particular instances in which the different methods are best suited for sampling rain forest herpetofauna.

ABSTRACT
When rapid changes in environmental factors occur in tropical rain forests, anurans may behaviorally alter their vertical microhabitat in response. Friajes are extreme weather phenomena that bring cold southern winds into Amazonia. Five friaje events during 1997 and 1998 in southern Peru were studied to examine whether anuran populations differed between visual encounter surveys conducted on friaje nights versus non-friaje nights. Anuran diversity, species richness, and number of hylid individuals were significantly greater during friajes in Peru. Friajes alter anuran vertical distributions by causing arboreal frogs to descend to lower levels in order to avoid the cold temperatures and desiccating winds associated with friajes.

ABSTRACT
Neotropical herpetofaunas have been studied at selected Central and South American sites, but intra-regional analyses in the Neotropics have not been possible due to lack of long-term data. A particular problem in interpreting herpetofaunal communities is the large geographic distances between the known localities. Such sampling does not take into account the patchiness of the habitat and this prevents analysis of regional diversity. In this study, five Neotropical herpetofaunal communities within a small geographic area (1600 km2) were examined to determine if species composition varies microgeographically. We sampled sites within the Tambopata Province, southeastern Peru. The five sites were surveyed intensively during a two-year period. The herpetofauna of the Tambopata region includes 210 species and, because of extensive sampling, has the highest overall herpetofaunal richness of any known region. Sites were compared using the coefficient of biogeographic resemblance (CBR). The CBRs were similar among all sites but the differences were determined primarily by their positions with respect to the two main rivers of the region and not directly correlated to distance among sites. Sites were also examined by partitioning their species into six microhabitat classes. Sites were found to differ in their proportions of reptiles and amphibians in each microhabitat class. The results of our study were compared to former investigations of various sites within the Tambopata region and elsewhere. This study identified more species than past investigations in all cases. Species composition was shown to vary at a microgeographic level. Based on our findings, we recommend that future studies examine multiple sites within each region to fully comprehend the herpetofaunal communities that exist in complex rain forest habitats.

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ABSTRACT
The modes of signalling in anuran amphibians are very diverse, over the years acoustical communication has remained the most studied topic, in recent times however the diversity of visual signalling has become much more apparent. This paper studies two genera of frog from the Amazonian portion of south eastern Peru, Pristimantis (Strabomantidae) and Phyllomedusa (Hylidae). The calling behaviour of Pristimantis is studied in relation to three environmental factors, and the colouration of Phyllomedusa is examined with the consideration of determination of conspecific males. Calls of Pristimantis fenestratus were recorded and the variance of call rate analysed with relation to air temperature, relative humidity and illumination of the moon face. For Phyllomedusa, a male palliata was introduced with other palliata and tomopterna to test the theory of colouration being an indicator of being conspecific. For the calling rate of P. fenestratus the illumination of the moon proved to be the most significant factor affecting the rate of calling, this is highly linked with the ability to detect the location of potential predators. Colouration in Phyllomedusa can be suggested to be an indicator of being a conspecific male, however not enough presentations were able to take place to statistically test this hypothesis. The importance of studying these behaviours is linked throughout this paper with the application of animal behaviour to conservation. In the last 10 years it is has become increasingly apparent that the application of behavioural knowledge to conservation management is a very positive step in ensuring the success of conservation strategies worldwide. This paper seeks to assess the current gaps in literature for these two genera of frog, and examine how these may be filled in order to inform and aid conservation methods for these and other frog species in the Neotropics.

ABSTRACT
We tested the ability of sound recordings relative to that of point counts to estimate species richness in the Tambopata Reserve in southeast Peru. We tested the effect of two environmental factors (estimated richness and presence of noisy species) and two attributes of species (abundance and foraging height) on estimates of species richness made by point counts and sound recordings. Sound recordings are preferred to point counts when richness is high, as during the dawn chorus, because they allow for repeated listenings. Point counts are more effective than sound recordings at detecting rarely heard species. The presence of noisy species at a station had no effect on the relative ability of the two methods to measure species richness. The foraging height of a species had no effect on its relative detectability by either method. Sound recording was found to be a suitable alternative to point counts for estimating species richness and a preferable alternative under some circumstances.

ABSTRACT
Population densities of the near-threatened Black-faced Cotinga Conioptilon mcilhennyi were investigated during a 21-month survey of lowland rainforest bird communities in Madre de Dios, south-east Peru. Surveys for the species were conducted at two locations along the Rı´o Madre de Dios. C. mcilhennyi is more abundant in old floodplain/seasonally flooded swamp forest mosaic habitat than in seasonally flooded swamp forest. Regional population estimates along the Rı´o Madre de Dios, Rı´o Parramanu and Rı´o de las Piedras range from 1,153 to 2,178 individuals. Current threats to this species and its habitat are discussed along with several conservation recommendations, including the proposal that the newly designated Parc Nacional Bahuaja-Sonene or existing Zona Reservada de Tambopata-Candamo are expanded to encompass suitable Black-faced Cotinga habitat.

ABSTRACT
Line transects based on distance sampling methodology were used to census nocturnal raptor
species in three different primary lowland forest habitats in the Tambopata region, southeastren Peru. Density estimates were calculated for five owl species in these forest habitats. In general, species were more abundant in primary old floodplain or primary middle/upper floodplain forests than in primary seasonally flooded swamp forest. Density estimates were also higher than those calculated from traditional spot-mapping methods in other lowland forest sites in southeastern Peru and French Guiana. There was no significant difference in the number of individual owls recorded during nights with different cloud cover or during different phases of the moon. Problems of distance estimation at night and unfamiliarity with a range of vocalizations, particularly with Strix owls, may be overcome by conducting a practice period before surveys are undertaken, with transect routes and distance markers adequately set out. Walking transect routes during daylight hours in a practice period also helps to overcome concerns of observer safety.

ABSTRACT
Surveys of threatened lowland forest bird species and forest habitats were conducted during a 21-month census of lowland bird communities in Tambopata, Department of Madre de Dios, south-east Peru. A combination of distance sampling census methods and direct counts was used for the census in five sites located along the Rio Madre de Dios and Rio Tambopata. All five sites consisted of different forest types with significantly different habitat components. Three of these sites were classified as primary forest habitats whilst the remaining two were classified as disturbed forests. Population densities were calculated for eight of the threatened species recorded during the census. Density
estimates of non-bamboo specialists were higher in primary forest habitats than in disturbed forest habitats. Density estimates of most bamboo specialists were higher in primary Old Floodplain forest with extensive bamboo understorey than in primary Middle/Upper Floodplain forest with smaller, patchy areas of bamboo understorey. Calculation of regional population estimates based on the amount of forest cover from satellite photographs shows that only two of the threatened bird species have substantial populations currently protected by the Parque Nacional Bahuaja-Sonene and Reservada Nacional de Tambopata. Selective logging operations that reduce overall tree biomass and remove a large proportion of palm tree species from primary forest habitats will have an adverse affect on local populations of four of the threatened bird species in the region.

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ABSTRACT
This paper seeks to outline the basic population dynamics of Tettigoniidae in southern Peru in the hopes that it might inspire further analyses of Neotropical katydid behavior and their ecological significance in the region. In a twelve-week period, data on general population densities, defensive strategies, and roost selection patterns was collected and logged. Although the authors are not experienced entomologists, this basic data is provided in the hopes if aiding in the formulation of more specialized investigation. Another goal is to promote interest in an interesting animal that the author’s believe could have a positive association with ecotourism much like that which already exists between the industry and the Amazons’ charismatic mega fauna. The authors owe much to the incredible generosity of Rainforest Expeditions and its employees for not only providing room and board but also often directly aiding in data collection. During our time in Tambopata, we were struck with the interest our investigation inspired in the tourists we interacted with and the enthusiasm inspired by the touristic accessibility of the insect. Over time, it became clear that the general frequency with which Katydids are encountered and the physical diversity of the family render it particularly easy to package within a larger discussion of ecology, forest preservation, and sustainability. We hope this data might be of use in inspiring a belief in the importance of preserving even the rainforest’s oft-overlooked species.

ABSTACT
The information provided in this report is based on the observations and data collected as part of two independent projects: a feasibility assessment for an inter-lodge recycling system, and a
composting system pilot project. This report is a summary of observations and data collected during the 2-week period in which the projects were carried out at Reserva Amazónica (RA),
from 1/8/09-14/8/09. It includes a description of current waste management practices observed, waste characterization data collected, and soil nutrient/pH data collected. It also
includes recommendations for modifications to current practices that could facilitate more effective separation and allocation of the solid waste produced.

ABSTRACT
Annual revenue flow to developing countries for ecotourism (or nature-based tourism) could be as large as US$ 210 × 109, providing an enormous financial incentive against habitat loss and exploitation. However, is ecotourism the most privately and/or socially valuable use of rainforest land? The question is rarely answered because the relevant data, estimates of profits and fixed costs, are rarely available.
We present a social cost-benefit analysis of land use in an ecotourism cluster in the Tambopata region of Amazonian Peru. The net present value of ecotourism-controlled land is given by the producer surplus (profits plus fixed costs of ecotourism lodges): US$ 1,158 ha-1, which is higher than all currently practiced alternatives, including unsustainable logging, ranching, and agriculture. To our knowledge, this is the first sector-wide study of profitability and producer surplus in a developing-country ecotourism sector and the first to compare against equivalent measures for a spectrum of alternative uses. We also find that ecotourism-controlled land sequesters between 5.3 to 8.7 million tons of above-ground carbon, which is equivalent to between 3000-5000 years of carbon emissions from tourism, at 2005 emission rates. Ecotourism in Tambopata has successfully monetized the hedonic value of wild nature in Amazonian Peru, and justifies the maintenance of intact rainforest over all alternative uses on narrow economic grounds alone.

ABSTRACT
Annual revenue flow to developing countries for ecotourism could be as large as US$210 billion, providing an enormous financial incentive against habitat loss and exploitation. However, surprisingly little quantitative evidence exists on the profitability of the rainforest ecotourism sector, which determines the incentive and capacity of the sector to engage in conservation. We document that a Peruvian rainforest ecotourism cluster generated US$11.6 million in 2005. The after-tax profit margin was at least 14% and has increased with tourist volume. High profitability, coupled with new legislation, has allowed operators to put 54,358 ha of rainforest near the new Interoceánica Sur highway under private management and to engage in conservation actions. A previously published microeconomic contract model of protected-areas management identifies two key features of rainforest tourism that link ecotourism to conservation: (1) tourists demand an immersive experience, which incentivizes the acquisition of large amounts of forest cover, and (2) institutional reforms have increased the expected effectiveness of conservation actions. In Peru, these conditions appear to be met, so that profits from ecotourism can combine with new land tenure rights to create a governance structure within which the industry can act as an independently financed partner to the conservation community.

ABSTRACT
Analysing the factors that influence visitor satisfaction is critical for the appropriate management of tourism, particularly in nature tourism enterprises, which are expected to contribute to biodiversity conservation and the development of local people. In this paper, we investigate the effect of different socio-economic and ecological variables, as well as tourist-operation related factors, on the overall satisfaction of tourists visiting three Amazonian lodges in Peru. We found three typologies of tourists, differing by several socio-economic and cultural factors, and by their motivations. The quality of the lodge was the factor that had the largest influence on overall satisfaction. Only one type of tourists (“true ecotourists”) showed a positive relation between their overall satisfaction and ecological features such as the species observed or cultural features such as operation of the lodge by native communities using local guides. Implications for management are discussed in terms of the potential of nature tourism to contribute to sustainable development in the Peruvian Amazon.

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ABSTRACT
This study documents the current state of conservation knowledge on threatened amphibian species in Peru. Following the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) classification system, we considered species in the following categories: Critically Endangered, Endangered, Vulnerable, and Near Threatened. Even though only the first three categories are regarded as threatened by IUCN, we included the fourth category to make comparisons with the list of threatened species issued by the Peruvian government. We used the Global Amphibian Assessment’s database and the list issued in Peru for this comparison. We conducted separate field surveys in 17 regions of Peru to evaluate the presence/absence of threatened amphibian species and species that are potentially threatened. We also used the Declining Amphibian Database–DAPTF, to compare our results with previous assessments on population declines, and the World Wildlife Fund’s Wildfinder database, to determine in which Neotropical ecoregion each species occurs. We compiled data on 83 species, 44 of which are recognized as threatened by the IUCN and/or the Peruvian government. The remaining 39 species should be re-assessed as they face various threats. A re-evaluation of current estimates is needed as only 8% of all species recorded in Peru are recognized as threatened by the government, whereas the global estimate of threatened species is about 32%. In addition to using IUCN criteria, this re-assessment should follow national guidelines standardized in Peru and be in accordance with the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). Because the habitat of almost 40% of threatened species reported herein still remains unprotected, and data on chytridiomycosis and other threats are lacking for most taxa, it is crucial to develop strategies for habitat conservation and research on disease dynamics in natural populations.

ABSTRACT
This study focuses on amphibian species diversity in the lowland Amazonian rainforest of southern Peru, and on the importance of protected and non-protected areas for maintaining amphibian assemblages in this region. We compared species lists from nine sites in the Madre de Dios region, five of which are in nationally recognized protected areas and four are outside the country’s protected area system. Los Amigos, occurring outside the protected area system, is the most species-rich locality included in our comparison. Overall, species similarity is relatively high among various localities in Madre de Dios. Among the 114 species recorded in Madre de Dios, nine (7.9%) have only been recorded on land outside of protected areas. This number emphasizes the need to conserve additional sites in the region, especially in the face of rapid habitat destruction. In addition, preliminary results from comparisons of species richness and abundance at the Los Amigos site suggest that forest type may affect the species composition, abundance, and distribution of amphibians at the local scale (area < 1000 ha). These results have wider implications for reserve design and habitat conservation decisions. We also present data on the conservation status of the amphibians of Madre de Dios according to IUCN and CITES categories.

Boo!

ABSTRACT
The potential effect of forest type on the structuring of animal communities in western Amazonia remains poorly understood. In this study,wetested the hypothesis that amphibian species richness, composition and abundance differacross forest types inthelowlandrain forestof south-eastern Peru.Byusing320individual transects,wecompared the amphibian assemblages across four major forest types (floodplain, terra firme, bamboo and palm swamp) at each of four sites separated by 3.5–105 km. We identified 1967 individuals of 65 species in 11 families and found that a large proportion of the amphibian diversity in this region is attributed to habitat-related beta diversity. Overall, we found that forest type is more important than site in predicting both species composition and abundance. We also found that, when analyses are conducted separately for each forest type and include species abundance data, similarity between assemblages decreases with increasing geographic distance. In contrast to studies that considered species presence/absence but ignored species abundances, our results highlight the importance of including abundance data in the assessment of animal diversity patterns inwestern Amazonia.We conclude that evaluating community structure across forest types can improve our understanding of diversity patterns in this region.

ABSTRACT
The breeding biology of Ranitomeya biolat was studied in lowland rain forest dominated by patches of bamboo in the Tambopata region of Peru. A grid of cut lengths of bamboo was sampled 21 times over a six-month period, and the presence of R. biolat adults, tadpoles, and eggs was recorded. A total of 94 adult frogs was captured from bamboos on 271 occasions. Egg masses were deposited on the inside of bamboo stems, but 41% failed to produce any tadpoles. Tadpoles developed in water trapped within the internodal cavity and took 58 days from hatching to reach full metamorphosis. Tadpoles in bamboos with eggs grew significantly faster than tadpoles in bamboos without eggs, suggesting that oophagy may be occurring. The use of bamboo as a specialist breeding niche by R. biolat is dependent on the bamboo interior being exposed by other organisms.

ABSTRACT
This report presents an analysis of caiman surveys performed at Explorer‟s Inn lodge within the Tambopata National Reserve, south-east Peru, between 2004 and 2007. The area is home to four caiman species, including an important population of the rare Black Caiman, Melanosuchus niger. The aim was to assess the abundance, distribution and population dynamics of these caimans, to examine factors affecting counts, and to assess possible effects of human disturbance. Good populations of Spectacled and Black Caimans were found, and appear to show interspecific habitat partitioning. There is also evidence that both species are breeding here, although it is unclear whether populations are increasing. Dwarf Caimans, Paleosuchus palpebrosus, were also sighted, though there were no confirmed sightings of the Smooth-fronted Caiman, Paleosuchus trigonatus, possibly because it prefers smaller forest streams. There were no apparent effects of weather or tourist disturbance on counts, and no direct evidence of human impacts, although a possible effect of human settlement on the Tambopata River was identified. Evidence for a possible breeding area for Black Caiman on Cocococha Lake also raises concerns over proposed increases in tourist access. Ongoing monitoring and continuation of current practices to minimise disturbance are recommended. Further study will be needed to understand these populations in more detail and to confirm long-term trends, but it appears that caimans are doing well and not being unduly disturbed by human activity here at present.

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ABSTRACT
There has been much investigation in recent years into the reasons for and factors affecting geophagy behaviour by parrots and macaws at clay licks. There has been much less focus on the behaviour of individual birds at these sites, despite the unique opportunity they present for behavioural investigation, and the potential such research may have to contribute to our understanding of lick use and of parrot behaviour in general. This study presents some of the first detailed empirical data on the behaviours of eight parrot species at a Peruvian lick. Focal animal samples performed in the early dry season of 2007 allowed the construction of an ethogram and of time budgets for birds both on the lick and in the surrounding trees and vegetation. Birds in the trees around the lick spent most of their time vigilant, with the rest engaged mainly in a variety of preening and social behaviours. Vigilance did not depend on flock size or body size. Behaviour patterns changed little with time of day, but did change significantly during periods of lick activity. There were also differences between species, particularly in Chestnut-fronted Macaws, which may have had fledglings present. Birds often ate clay away from the lick face, a previously unreported behaviour that may relate to predation, competition, or the mechanics of clay processing. Individual birds spent a mean of 2.35 minutes on the lick in any one feeding bout, taking a mean of 13 bites from the clay, and in a third of cases taking clay away from the lick at the end of the bout. Some preference was seen for feeding from a vine rather than perched on the clay. Most time on the lick was spent chewing clay, and associated behaviours such as gagging and head shaking suggested some difficulties with this. Agonistic interaction rates were five times higher on the lick than in the surrounding trees, with a dominance hierarchy based on body size. Most aggression occurred between conspecifics, as did most displacement in the trees, whereas most displacement on the lick itself was between heterospecifics and probably due to competition for space.

ABSTRACT
We observed ten species of psittacids, three species of columbids, and two species of cracids consuming soil from banks of the lower Tambopata River in southeastern Peru. Our study used observations and soil analyses from eight exposed riverbank sections to test the predictions of three models to determine why birds consume clay: mechanid aid to digestion (grit), adsorption of dietary toxins, and mineral supplementation. We found that preferred soils were deficient in particles large enough to aid in the mechanical breakdown of food and help digestion. Percent clay content and cation exchange capacity (CEC), both predicted to correlate with adsorption of toxins, did not differ between used and unused sites as had been found in a similar study. Instead, preferred soils were more saline and had higher concentrations of exchangeable sodium. This suggests that the choice of soils at our site was based primarily on sodium content. Birds may be using the heavy, plastic texture of soils rich in clays and high in exchangeable sodium as a proximal cue for soil selection. Our findings suggest that avian soil selection decisions depend on the range of available soil characteristics.

ABSTRACT
Geophagy is widespread and well documented for mammals, but avian geophagy has only recently become the subject of serious scientific investigation. I analyzed data from 606 mornings of observations at a large avian geophagy site or ‘‘clay lick’’ in the southwestern Amazon Basin to examine the effects of weather on bird lick use. Birds used the clay lick on 94% of the mornings without recipitation or fog. Parrots dominated the site in both numbers of species (17) and individuals (.99%). Weather conditions were significantly correlated with total lick use: there was greater use on sunny mornings and less on rainy mornings. Fog and overnight rain were correlated with low lick use. Sun, rain, fog, and overnight rain were recorded on 47, 25, 20 and 8% of the mornings, respectively. I estimated that inclement weather caused an annual 29% reduction in geophagy for all bird species combined. When early morning rain prevented species from using the lick, they did not return later in the day nor did they compensate for rainy mornings by increasing lick use on subsequent days. The timing of lick use and the lack of compensation suggest that neutralization of toxins could be driving lick use in this system.

ABSTRACT
Species distribution maps are widely used in predicting areas of conservation concern, particularly where species distributions are poorly known. However, the accuracy of range maps for regional/local planning is questionable. We compared published putative geographic range polygons of 10 primate species to their actual occupancy at 23 survey sites in southeastern Peru to assess the fine-scale accuracy of these polygons for regional conservation planning. We analyzed the proportion of sites at which each species was detected both inside and outside of its published NatureServe (Patterson et al. 2003) and IUCN (2008) range polygons. There were mismatches between our line-transect survey data and range polygon boundaries for nine of the 10 species (from 15% to 80% of cases), including both false presences and false absences. Each published dataset overestimated the presence of seven primate species and the absence of four species, though errors varied among species. Occupancy patterns of species with larger geographic ranges were no more accurately predicted than those of more narrow-range species. Regional barriers to dispersal, such as rivers, and finer-scale ecological specialization may limit the applicability of range map polygons to regional-scale conservation priority-setting, even for relatively well-studied taxa. Despite the risk of errors, range polygons are still used as baseline data in conservation planning. We suggest some measures that could reduce the error risk.

ABSTRACT
Standardized sampling methods are essential for comparing species diversity and abundance patterns across different studies and areas. Although dung beetles are widely used as a focal taxon in biodiversity studies, nothing appears to be known about the effective sampling area of dung-baited traps. Mark-recapture experiments using Canthon acutus showed that at least 50 m between traps should minimize trap interference, and that wind affects trap detectability. Consequently, we propose a standardized dung beetle sampling design.

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